Andrea Palladio Comes to America Essay Example

Andrea Palladio Comes to America Paper Andrea Palladio was an influential architect during the Late Renaissance and the Baroque period. He was a dominant figure in this field, not only of his lifetime, not just in the lifetime of those who knew him, but now – 400 years later (Source 2). Palladio’s architecture was based on symmetry, perspective, and proportions. His architectural style became known as Palladianism. Palladian Architecture is seen through out America today. Thomas Jefferson appreciated the architectural concepts of Palladio, and his designs for The Rotunda at the University of Virginia, Monticello Estate, the James Barbour Barboursville estate, and the University of Virginia, were based on drawings from Palladio’s book. Other modern-day American architecture influenced by Andrea Palladio are the Hammond-Harwood House and Drayton Hall. Palladianism can be described as Palladio’s interpretation of classical architecture. It began in the 17th century and developed until the end of the 18th century. Palladianism was popular in Britain for a short period and when it began to fall out of favor in Europe it became popular in North America, prominently in buildings designed by Thomas Jefferson. The style continued to be popular through the 19th and early 20th centuries in Europe, where it frequently employed in the design of public and municipal buildings. From the latter half of the 19th century it was rivaled by the Gothic Revival, whose champions, such as Augustus Pugin, remembering the ancient temple roots of the style, deemed it too pagan for Protestant and Anglo-Catholic worship. We will write a custom essay sample on Andrea Palladio Comes to America specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Andrea Palladio Comes to America specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Andrea Palladio Comes to America specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer However, as an architectural style it has continued to be, not only popular, but too evolve its pediments, symmetry and proportions clearly evident in the design of many modern buildings today (Source 3). In Palladios architectural treatises he followed the principles defined by the Roman architect Vitruvius and his 15th-century disciple Leon Battista Alberti, who adhered to principles of classical Roman architecture based on mathematical proportions rather than the rich ornamental style also characteristic of the Renaissance (Source 3). Palladio also took into account where his villa would be located. If it was on a hill he designed facades to be of equal value so fine views could be seen in all directions. Most of his villa’s were located in the countryside so he designed them with porticos on all sides so that the countryside could be appreciated by the occupants while being protected from the harsh elements such as the sun. Portico’s are known as porches in modern day America. Palladio would often model his villa elevations on Roman temple facades. The temple influence, often in a cruciform design, later became a trademark of his work (Source 3). Palladian villas are usually built with three floors: a basement or ground floor, containing the service and minor rooms. Above this, the piano nobile accessed through a portico reached by a flight of external steps, containing the principal reception and bedrooms, and above it is a low mezzanine floor with secondary bedrooms and accommodation (Source 3). The proportions of each room within the villa were calculated on simple mathematical ratios like 3:4 and 4:5, and the different rooms within the house were interrelated by these ratios. Earlier architects had used these formulas for balancing a single symmetrical facade; however, Palladios designs related to the whole, usually square, villa (Source 3). Another trademark of Palladio’s was the Palladian Window. It consists of a central light with semicircular arch over, carried on an impost consisting of a small entablature, under which, and enclosing two other lights, one on each side, are pilasters (Source 3). Palladios influence in North America is evident almost from the beginning of architect designed building there. The amateur architect Thomas Jefferson once referred to Palladios I Quattro Libri dellArchitettura as his bible. Jefferson acquired an intense appreciation of Palladios architectural concepts, and his designs for the Jefferson Monticello estate, the James Barbour Barboursville estate, and the University of Virginia were based on drawings from Palladios book (Source 3). Realizing the powerful political significance pertaining to ancient Roman buildings, Jefferson designed many of his civic buildings in the Palladian style. Monticello is clearly based on Palladios Villa Capra, however, with modifications, in a style which is described in America today as Colonial Georgian. Jeffersons Pantheon, or Rotunda, at the University of Virginia is undeniably Palladian in concept and style (Source 3). The Harmmond-Harwood House built by William Buckland in 1773 is just one of the homes in America influenced by Palladian architecture. It is the only existing work of colonial academic architecture that was principally designed from a plate in Andrea Palladio’s, The Four Books of Architecture (Source 4). The house was designed for a wealthy farmer Matthias Hammond in Annapolis, Maryland (Source 4). It was modeled after the Villa Pisani in Montagnana, Italy. The house ranks architecturally with many of the great mansions built in the late Colonial period. It is one of the most exquisite homes remaining from the Colonial period in America (Source 4). He worked around Palladio’s designs to satisfy the tastes of colonial Annapolis. Buckland re-designed the plan to accommodate for asymmetrical regional preferences and modified the hyphens from Palladio’s arched entries to more practical single story connecting links (Source 4). He also incorporated a fashionable urban design by sinking the windows in which provided better protection against fire and gave the overall design a greater degree of visual solidity and three-dimensionality (Source 4). Hammond-Harwood House (Md. Ave. Facade), 9/18/2007, Wilkipedia The Villa Pisani at Montagnana from The Four Books of Architecture by Andrea Palladio, Giacomo Leoni, 1742 Drayton Hall is perhaps one of the most handsome example of Palladian architecture in North America. It is located in the â€Å"Low Country† near Charleston, South Carolina. The architect of the house is unknown, but the house was built for John Drayton. The construction began in 1738 and was completed in 1742, using free and slave labor. The seven-bay double pile plantation house stands in a 630-acre site that is part of the plantation based on indigo and rice. The house has a deep recessed double portico on the west â€Å"front†, shading the home from afternoon sun and offering open-air summer living space. The floor plan is Palladian, with a central entrance stair hall, containing a symmetrical divided staircase, backed by a large saloon, flanked by square and rectangular chambers (Source 5). Pedimented chimneypieces in the house are in the tectonic manner popularized by William Kent. There is fine plasterwork in several of the rooms of the main floor, which is raised above a half-basement, which is also true to Palladian architecture. Materials used on the outside of the house are brick, limestone and sandstone. The brick is used for the main structure of the home, the limestone was used on stairs and the sandstone formed pavers on the portico. Another feature of Palladian architecture is the use of flanker buildings. Many Palladian villas incorporated flankers and colonnades to form courtyards. A difference in Drayton Hall and Palladian Villas is the difference in ceiling height with each succeeding floor level. Palladio recommended the ceiling height recede as the building grew taller. The ceiling heights get progressively taller from the basement to the first floor and on up. Palladio might have been more concerned with structural strength, whereas John Drayton may have been more concerned with comfort in a hot, humid climate and with the theatricality of a grand hall of the upper floor (Source 6). Drayton Hall might be one of the earliest Palladian buildings in America. It is considered a Georgian Palladian home, but only because it was a Palladian building built in the Georgian Era. Drayton Hall (Front), Kellie Thorne, Natl Scenic Byways Online, Wilkipedia Drayton Hall (Floor Plan), www. draytonhall. org Thomas Jefferson’s Monticello is also a representation of Palladianism architecture in America. Work on the Monticello began in 1768. Jefferson based the design on the classical style of Palladian architecture. Jefferson left Monticello for an extended stay in Europe. When Jefferson returned he expanded his vision for Monticello based on the Palladian buildings and ruins he admired overseas (Source 8). The building materials were made at Monticello, as were the nails for the remodeled house. Most of the structural timber came from Jefferson’s own land, while most of the window sashes were made of imported mahogany (Source 9). The window glass came from Europe. Stone for the cellars and the East Front columns, and limestone for making mortar, were quarried on Jefferson’s land. The stone and brick work were done by local white masons, Local carpenters assisted by Monticello slaves provided the rough structural woodwork. Jefferson, influenced by new architecture in France, added a dome in 1800 (Source 9). The floor plan of Monticello is still symmetrical with perfect proportions used for each room. An external staircase leading to the main entrance is an original Palladian design or a feature of neoclassical style that followed Palladianism (Source 3). Monticello, Christopher Hollis, Wilkipedia Monticello (Floor Plan), www. Monticello. org Andrea Palladio is one of the most known and influential architects during his time and there after. His ideas are still carried on in architecture today. His palladian window is perhaps the most known and most used form of palladian architecture in America. There are only two true Palladian architecture is based on symmetry, perspective and perfect proportions. It has been used in America since the 18th century. While it is not the prominent source of architecture in modern-day America it still stands its own ground. Palladian windows are probably the most used today when it comes to American architecture. The external staircase often seen on the outside of homes is also true to Palladianism. There are only two houses in the United States that can be definitively attributed to designs from the Four Books of Architecture. These are the Hammond-Harwood House, by William Buckland and the first Monticello by Thomas Jefferson.

Discuss similarities and differences between the gestural behaviours of humans and non-human primates. The WritePass Journal

Discuss similarities and differences between the gestural behaviours of humans and non-human primates. Introduction Discuss similarities and differences between the gestural behaviours of humans and non-human primates. IntroductionReferencesRelated Introduction Gestural behaviour can be defined as spontaneous movements of the hands and arms which convey a meaning that is semantically and temporally in close synchrony with the flow of speech (McNeil, 1992).   Humans and non-human primates such as bonobos and chimpanzees (hereafter referred to as primates) share approximately 95% of the same DNA as humans (Pika, 2008).   Thus, investigating the gestures of humans and primates may provide insight into the evolution of human communication.   This paper provides an overview of the similarities and differences between the gestural behaviour of humans and primates, focusing on the brain regions employed; the pointing gesture and the degree to which gestures can be learned from conspecifics. Gestures activate the mirror neuron system (MNS) in the brain (Corballis, 2009).  Ã‚   That is, the same network of neurons is activated when performing a particular action or observing the same action being performed by another.   For instance in primates, the MNS is activated when either a monkey is cracking nuts open or observing another monkey cracking nuts (Kohler et al., 2002).   In humans, the mirror system is activated with actions and speech (Corballis, 2009). Willems, Ãâ€"zyà ¼rek Hagoort (2007) recruited humans in a functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging study to identify the neural networks involved in gesturing behaviour.   Participants underwent a series of matched and mismatched trials where semantic information was conveyed through speech and iconic gestures.   A matched trial is when gestures exhibit images expressed concurrently in speech and a mismatched trial is when gestures are incongruent with speech.   Results revealed that Broca’s area had significantly greater activation in the matched than in the mismatched trials.   Ã‚  Thus, Broca’s area increases in activation when information is simultaneously presented from the speech and action domains, compared to the speech domain alone. Furthermore, Taglialatela, Russell, Schaeffer and Hopkins (2008) recruited primates in a Positron Emission Tomography study to identify neural networks in gesturing behaviour. Primates took part in two tasks; one which induced vocal behaviour in the primates and another which induced vocal and gestural behaviour.   Results revealed more activation in the left inferior frontal gyrus and the prefrontal cortex during the vocal and gestural behaviour task than the vocal behaviour task.   This area is homologous to Broca’s area in humans (Corballis, 2009).   Taken together, these studies suggest similarities between humans and primates in terms of the shared neural region, Broca’s area; however, there are some differences with innate gestural acquisition. Pointing is a deictic gesture that is typically used as a communicative body movement which projects a vector from a body part to draw another person’s attention to an object or entity (Kita, 2003).   Ã‚  Canonical pointing at nearby targets begins in humans at approximately 11 months and at more distant targets at around 12 months (Morissette, Ricard, Gouin-Decarie, 1995).   Additionally, by 12 months, infants will typically check to establish whether they have the awareness of another person to share the focus of attention with prior to pointing (Cochet Vauclair, 2010).   Thus, pointing has been observed during early development with joint attention between the infant and the recipient, highlighting the deictic quality of the gesture. In wild primates, pointing has been rarely observed between conspecifics (Vea Sabater-Pi, 1998).   Instead, to share attention, wild primates typically orientate their whole body towards the desired object or entity (Menzel, 1974).   Nevertheless, successful pointing behaviour has been found in captive primates.   This was found serendipitously in a primate named Clint during testing, when on one occasion he was observed repetitively pointing with his index finger through the cage at a food reward, while alternating his gaze between the experimenter and the food (Leavens, Hopkins Bard, 1996).   This observation led to further experimental testing and vast reports of pointing in primates for food or objects (Meguerditchian Vauclair, 2009; Zimmermann, Zemke, Call Gomez, 2009). Liszkowski, Schafer, Carpenter and Tomasello (2009) compared 12 month old infants and primates, in pointing to a desired absent object.   The experimenter placed a highly desirable reward (e.g. a toy or food) in the target location and an undesirable reward (e.g. paper towels or bedding) in the alternative location for the participants to associate the target location with obtaining the highly desirable reward.   In the test condition, the experimenter waited for the participant to make a request.   If there were no request, the experimenter looked expectantly at the participant and touched both locations simultaneously.   The results revealed that 12 month old infants pointed to the absent target object location repeatedly and often before the trial started, but primates failed to point at all. Bullinger, Zimmermann, Kaminski Tomasello, (2011) compared the intention of the pointing gesture between primates and 25 month old children.   Participants undertook two tasks in which they could see the reward but the experimenter could not.   In one task, pointing would directly benefit the participant (e.g. to gain food or a toy reward) and in the other task, pointing would benefit the experimenter.   Ã‚  Results revealed that while children would point to benefit themselves and another person (i.e. experimenter), primates only pointed when it would benefit them.   This suggests that unlike 25 month old children, primates do not have cooperative motivation.   Taken together, this evidence suggests that while primates are able to point, this behaviour is significantly different from pointing behaviour in infants and young children, who are able to point at a present object, in addtion to an absent object or to help another person retrieve a reward. Another difference between humans and primates lies with the acquisition of gestures through social learning.   Social learning theory postulates that an individual learns by observing and imitating the actions of others (Franzoi, 2000).   Developmental research has shown that the mechanism for social imitation of manual gestures, such as tongue protrusions and sequential finger movement begins in infants between 12 to 21 days of age (Meltzoff Moore, 1977).   Meltzoff and Moore (1997) propose that imitation in infants is accomplished without any cognitive understanding using a mechanism which directly maps between perceptual input and motor output. Carpenter, Nagell and Tomasello, (1998) investigated infants aged between 9 and 15 months to find out when they understand the intention of their action.   Before being requested to turn a light on, infants received demonstrations of how to perform the task by depressing a switch with either their hands or head.   Results revealed that while all the infants copied the action, only those from 13 months checked to ensure the light came on and were producing the same goal as the adults.   This suggests that social learning in older infants is guided by goal directed behaviour. There is less evidence for the social learning of gestures within primates, with individual differences in the execution of gestures being found in primate communities (Pika, Liebal, Call Tomasello, 2005).   For instance, the ‘grooming handclasp’, which is where two primates hold hands overhead during mutual grooming has been found to vary between two different communities within the same subspecies of wild primates.   That is, intergroup differences have been observed in different communities with palm to palm touching and non-palm to palm touching, which indicates social learning amongst conspecifics within each community (McGrew, Marchant, Scott Tutin, 2001).   Nevertheless, in both communities, some primates failed to use the gesture at all. Laidre (2011) investigated the same subspecies of captive primates in 19 various communities worldwide.   Findings revealed that only primates in Colchester, England had a unique ‘eye covering’ gesture, where they would cover their eyes for extended periods of time, conveying a ‘do not disturb sign’ to the other primates.   This gesture was observed for over a decade despite births, deaths and removals.   Nevertheless, there was some individual variation in the performance of the gesture, with 32% of the primates raising their elbow in addition to covering their eyes.   Taken together, this evidence suggests that infants have an innate ability to learn gestures by means of a social learning mechanism, yet in primates, this is not the major learning process of gestures. In conclusion, humans and primates share the same neural region for processing gestural behaviour (i.e. Broca’s area).   However, there are some differences between the two species. Infant’s deictically point towards a present or absent desired object or entity, whereas primates rarely point unless they have acquired the behaviour from humans in order to achieve a variety of ends.   Additionally, primates, unlike children, only point when they benefit from a reward and fail to point to inform others.   This suggests that pointing is a unique, innate, human attribute which primates acquire whilst interacting with humans. Furthermore, infants from approximately 16 days old have shown social imitation gestures and from the age of 13 months, can use these gestures to guide specific behaviour towards a goal.   In primates however, there is less evidence to support the acquisition of gestures by means of social learning, with large variability of individual gestures existing in the same community.   Future research could investigate whether inter-zoo transfers translocate the unique eye covering gesture to a new community. References Bullinger, A., Zimmermann, F.,   Kaminski, J. Tomasello, M.   (2011).   Different social motives in the gestural communication of chimpanzees and human children.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Developmental Science, 14, 58-68. Carpenter, M., Nagell, K. Tomasello, M.   (1998).   Social cognition, joint attention, and communicative competence from 9 to 15 months of age.   Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 63, 1–143. Cochet, H. Vauclair, J.   (2010).   Pointing gesture in young children: Hand preference and language development.   Gesture, 10, 129-149. Corballis, M.   (2009).   Language as gesture.   Human Movement Science, 28, 556-565. Franzoi, S.   (2000).   Social Psychology (2nd ed). New York: McGraw-Hill. Kita, S. (Ed.).   (2003).   Pointing: Where language, culture and cognition meet. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Kohler, E., Keysers, C., Umilt, M., A., Fogassi, L., Gallese, V. Rizzolatti, G.   (2002). Hearing sounds, understanding actions: action representation in mirror neurons. Science, 297, 846–848. Laidre, M.   (2011).   Meaningful gesture in monkeys? Investigating whether Mandrills create social culture.   Plus One, 6, 1-9. Leavens, A., Hopkins, D. Bard, A.   (1996).   Indexical and referential pointing in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes).   Journal of Comparative Psychology, 110, 346 –353. Liszkowski, U., Schfer, M., Carpenter, M. Tomasello, M.   (2009).   Prelinguistic infants, but not chimpanzees, communicate about absent entities.   Psychological Science, 20, 654-66. McGrew, W., Marchant, L., Scott, S. Tutin, C.   (2001).   Intergroup diï ¬â‚¬erences in a social custom of wild chimpanzees: the grooming hand-clasp of the Mahale mountains. Current Anthropology, 42, 148–153. McNeil, D.   (1995).   Hand and Mind.   Chicago, CSU: The University of Chicago Press. Meguerditchian, A. Vauclair, J.   (2009).   Contrast of hand preferences between communicative gestures and non-communicative actions in baboons: Implications for the origins of hemispheric specialization for language. Brain and Language, 108, 167- 174. Meltzoff, A. Moore, M.   (1977).   Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates.   Science, 198, 75-78. Meltzoff, A. Moore, M.   (1997).   Explaining facial imitation: A theoretical model. Early Development and Parenting, 6, 179–192. Menzel, E.   (1974).   A group of young chimpanzees in a one-acre ï ¬ eld: Leadership and communication.   In A. M. Schrier F. Stollnitze (Eds.), Behavior of Nonhuman Primates (pp. 83–153).   New York: Academic Press. Morissette, P., Ricard, M. Gouin-Decarie, T.   (1995).   Joint visual attention   and pointing in infancy: A longitudinal   study of comprehension.   British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 13,   163-177. Pika, S., Liebal, T., Call, J. Tomasello, M.   (2005).   The gestural communication of apes. Gesture, 5, 41-56. Pika, S.   (2008).   Gestures of apes and pre-linguistic human children: Similar or different? First Language, 28, 116-140. Taglialatela, P., Russell, L., Schaeffer, A. Hopkins, D.   (2008).   Communicative signalling activates ‘Broca’s’ Homolog in chimpanzees.   Current Biology, 18, 343-348. Vea`, J. Sabater-Pi, J.   (1998).   Spontaneous pointing behaviour in the wild pygmy chimpanzee (Pan paniscus).   Folia Primatologica, 69, 289-290. Willems, R., Ãâ€"zyà ¼rek, A. Hagoort, P.   (2007).   When language meets action:   The neural integration of gesture and speech.   Cerebral Cortex, 17, 2322-2333. Zimmermann, F., Zemke, F., Call, J. Gà ³mez, J.C.   (2009).   Orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) and bonobos (Pan paniscus) point to inform a human about the location of a tool. Animal Cognition, 12, 347–358.

Coney Island Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Coney Island - Essay Example At the turning of the twentieth century, this culture was still in the first stage of formation and not fully incorporated within the society’s life (Kasson, 1978). Its fullest expression at this time lay in the main realm of commercial based amusements, which created essential symbols of the new cultural based order and helped to knit a complex cohesive audience. At the turn of the century, Coney Island was leading in establishment of symbols and their relationship to the new audiences. Some of the changes witnessed were governing of the Nineteenth-century America with some striking set of values and cultural aspects such as Victorian" compared to England Queen Victoria reigned. Interestingly, the urban-industrial society was facilitated with the genteel reformers who were eager to make a step in cultural leadership by disciplining, refining, and instructing the turbulent urban-industrial democracy within the people. The American apostles of culture put a lot of effort to ensure that they inculcate Victorian virtues of "character" such as self-control, moral integrity, industriousness, earnestness and soberness among the citizens. The American apostles believed that changing the culture of the urban-industrial society would help the men in passion to grow economically use leisure and work time efficiently. This was what the urban-based society required in order to grow economically, socially and culturally. Moreover, genteel culture occupying a position given that genteel reformers founded libraries, symphonies museums and other great institutions that help to set a cultural change that dominated public based discussion (Kasson, 1978). Of the critical importance to their success as cultural based arbiters was the ability to create a support of influential shapers of the great mass culture, who echoed their development tone and carried the message to audience. As a result, a series of technological based innovations were disseminated which

Business functions and processes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Business functions and processes - Essay Example For instance, installing a technology in a firm whose overall internal structures and infrastructure are not compatible with application of the same is wastage of time, money and human resource. Equally important is that fact that technology can be sometimes the only measure, providing means to meet customer needs in the present competitive environment (Shaughnessy, 2013). Operations are strategized in a manner whereby organisation can compete in a competitive marketplace. For instance, these strategies can be in terms of quality, low cost, customisation and delivery. Traditional challenges in operations management such as, choice of only one strategy, are no longer tolerated as performance standard has been raised though technology and its applications. Nevertheless, for proper integration and implementation of technology in any organisation, it is essential to understand relevance of technology (Heizer and Render, 2011). The business environment is filled with examples of failed attempts while installing technology such as, ERP systems. For instance, Hershey Foods faced numerous problems in its product distribution system after implementation of R/3 system of SAP. This resulted in a huge demand-supply gap and Hershey was not able to supply candies during peak seasons of Christmas and Halloween. Similarly, Whirlpool faced shipping delays due to failed implementation of its ERP system. An interesting point to be noted here is that many of the challenges faced in context of ERP in present business scenario are similar to those faced by managers during implementation of MRP 20 years ago (Shaughnessy, 2013; Brown, et al., 2005). Hence, it can be said that challenges faced during technology implementation is more related to intangible forces such as, lack of leadership, commitment, training and understanding compared to tangible forces such as, technological defects in the systems. Few of the major challe nges

Arthus Evans' contribution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Arthus Evans' contribution - Essay Example This Minoan civilization became his contribution to stratigraphy-driven archaeology. The Crete excavations that had resulted in the discovery of the Minoan civilization had another essential contribution in store. Based on the Minoan civilization, Arthur Evans developed a relative dating scheme which he named Minoan chronology (MacGillivray 163). Arthur Evans had predominantly managed excavations at Knossos. For this reason, the Minoan chronology is purely attributed to him. This dating scheme would later be applied in Greek and the Cyclades Islands, thereby becoming a plan for dating prehistoric and early historic Aegean events (MacGillivray 174). Arthur Evans was the world-renowned British archaeologist who excavated the palace of Knossos on the Greek island of Crete and developed the theory of Minoan civilization (Roberts 156). He was born on July 8, 1851 and passed away on July 11, 1941. Throughout his academic career, Evans contributed a great number of precious works which include Cretan Pictographs and Pre-Phoenician Script (1895), The Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult (1901), and The Palace of Minos (1921-1936) (Karetsou 364). These works have produced significant influence on the development of archaeology particularly in the field of European and Mediterranean Sea area history (Karetsou 381). Panagiotaki (257) contends that Evans also contributed largely to the study of ancient language by defining Cretan scripts Linear A and Linear B. The findings of Evans laid a solid groundwork for later research and provided guidance for the further work on these areas. Evans was drawn to the field of ancient history due to both individual and social reasons. Evans was born in a highly educated and intellectual family. His grandfather was the Headmaster of Market Bosworth Grammar School and received a Master Degree in history. Arthur Evans’ father, John Evans, was capable of reading Latin which led him to large amounts of authoritative academic works

Employee Turnover In Pharmaceutical Companies In Kenya Management Essay

Employee Turnover In Pharmaceutical Companies In Kenya Management Essay The objective of the study was to investigate employee turnover problem in Pharmaceutical industries in Kenya with a case study of Ranbaxy Laboratories limited. The study specifically investigated on staff retention measures utilized by the management, whether exit interviews are conducted, and the competitiveness of reward program and whether the conduciveness of the work place environment as factors that may contribute to workforce turnover in this sector. The study adopted a descriptive research design to identify the employee turnover factors and a sample size of 50 employees were selected using a simple random sampling since the population for the purpose of this study was regarded as homogeneous. The study collected both primary and secondary data using semi-structured questionnaire and review of empirical and theoretical literatures respectively. The instruments were pilot tested for reliability checks. Statistical software SPSS was used for data analysis and generation of charts and graphs. Analysis took both descriptive and inferential dimensions where some elements of measure of central tendency and regression analysis were employed respectively. The study revealed that organization lacked effective staff retention strategies, where exit interviews were not regularly and effectively conducted, the employed reward program was not competitive and existence of unfriendly work place environment influenced most employees to leave the organization. Thus it was concluded that lack of effective strategies to manage these factors influenced most pharmaceutical companies to continue experiencing high staff turnover rates that lower the total organization productivity and increase running costs by recurrent recruitment costs, production disrupting and broken clients relationships. The study recommended that these factors should be part of the organization business strategy rather than being left to managers to act. Key Words: Employee turnover, Retention strategies, Exit interviews, Work environment and, Compensation. Introduction Turnover is the rate at which workers are replaced with new staff members in an organization. Turnover rate is calculated by dividing the number of resignations by number of staff in a given period of time usually a calendar year. Gberevbie, (2008) refers to frequent labor turnover as a state of affairs in an organization whereby employees for reasons best known to them based on their perception of personnel policies and practice of an organization resign or leave their job. Employees switch organizations for several reasons. These reasons could be either organization related or job related. Managers would readily agree that retaining the top performers results in higher customer satisfaction, quality improvement, effective succession planning and a considerable increase in organization knowledge and learning. Smith (2001) discusses companies with work environments that attract and retain people and where people are willing to give their best. These environments arent expensive. In f act, they save money.   In most cases, they improve retention and productivity without lavish salaries or bonuses. And they certainly lower the expense of continually hiring and training new people. Estimates suggest that separation, replacement and training costs are 1.5 to 2.5 times annual salary for each person who quits, which means that the departure of a middle manager usually costs an organization around $75,000 (Dalton et al., 1993). Employees who perceive relationships with customers provide better service. Customers who receive better service express fewer complaints and thereby create fewer problems for employees. Employees in turn react more favorably to encounters with customers. These reactions result in better service which again leads to higher customer satisfaction. Providing adequate health care to the populations remains a major challenge for governments in Africa .Access of drugs is dependent on both affordability and quality. The pharmaceutical sector is Kenya is dominated by multinational companies and generic companies who either import ready products or locally manufactured products. The domestic pharmaceutical industry shows considerable strength and has significant opportunities for growth. Imported generics make 28% of the market share (UNIDO survey, 2009). The reports goes on to say exports to Tanzania and Uganda are growing and still more potential for Kenya to establish its self as a major source in Southern Sudan. For purpose of this study, the researcher focused on Ranbaxy Laboratories Limited, an integrated, research based, international pharmaceutical company producing a wide range of quality, affordable generic medicines, trusted by healthcare professionals and patients across geographies, the company has a unique model of applauding and recognizing individual and team effort through (APPRECIATE) program designed to motivate performance (www.ranbaxy.com). The Companys business philosophy is based on delivering value to its stakeholders by constantly inspiring its people to innovate, achieve excellence and set new global benchmarks. Statement of the Problem The private health sector in Kenya contributes around 13% to the GDP and has largely remained unchanged since 1995(KPPB, 2007). Out of this, Pharmaceutical industries account for a whopping 10.3% in its contribution to the GDP. Although on average this is seen as stagnation, it is considered as one of the largest in East and Central Africa. Nevertheless, due to increased development of conventional medicines and awareness about preventive culture in the urban population, the industry has registered a high level of growth and innovation that has turned the sector into a vibrant business domain. This has seemingly attracted the attention of many entrepreneurs resulting to massive investment both at large and retail scale levels. Empirical studies (Wilson and Peel, 1990) on pharmaceutical industries have indicated that the industry is characterized by a stiff competition. In Kenya, the proliferations of the biotechnology marketplace have greatly revolutionized the industry operations. Organizations are increasingly at risk of losing key sales personnel to competitors and new market entrants. In a recent benchmarking study, Best Practices found that the 2006 aggregate annual turnover of employees for the pharmaceutical and biotech industries in Kenya is 14.2%. According to (Paul and Anantharaman, 2003) ,increasing turnover of sales people is particularly problematic for the larger pharmaceutical companies as smaller market entrants, particularly biotechnology firm keep on attracting their employees.. This resulted into massive exodus of employees from the pharmaceutical subsector into these upcoming biotechnology firms since the skills required is the same in both sub sector. This has evidently affected the Pharmaceutical industries since they responded to these pressures by focusing on its innovative segment and increasing its RD expenditures by means of in-house innovation, technological and therapeutic market specialization, and mergers and acquisitions of companies within and outside the pharmaceutical industry resulting to declining profits and stagnation (Kundu Malhan, 2007). Most studies (Delaney and Huselid,1996) done of the employee turnover sought to establish preliminary indices for employee turnover situations in different subsector hence making many statistics that describes the turnover of employees as abundant. In spite of having many studies undertaken on staff turnover in pharmaceutical companies, none of t he studies have managed to come up with an effective solution on how pharmaceutical companies should employ effective staff retention measures, conduct exit interviews, employ effective rewards programs and provide better working envi ronment. This has therefore created a wide knowledge gap on staff turnover management and hence created a need to conduct a study on factors contributing to the employee turnover in pharmaceutical companies in Kenya. Ranbaxy Laboratories Limited, which is one of the largest and leading chains in the pharmaceutical laboratories with highest turnover according to the preliminary indices, (Delaney and Huselid, 1996) its recent employee satisfaction survey of 2009 indicated that 50% of the employees felt they would not be in the company for the next two years and 69% felt their intention to quit is influenced by management not peers. Considering Ranbaxy Laboratories Limited as a case, this study therefore sought to investigate the factors that contribute to employee turnover in pharmaceutical industries in Kenya. Overall Objective of the Study The general objective of the study is to investigate factors contributing to the employee turnover in pharmaceutical companies in Kenya, a case study of Ranbaxy Laboratories Limited. Specific Objectives The study aimed to:- To investigate employee retention actions as a factor contributing to employee turnover in Ranbaxy Laboratories Limited. To find out whether exit interviews affect employee turnover in Ranbaxy Laboratories Limited. To find out the competiveness of reward program as a factor contributing to employee turnover in Ranbaxy Laboratories Limited.. To establish whether the work place environment affect employee turnover in Ranbaxy Laboratories Limited. Research Question The study sought answers for the following questions: Does employee retention actions as a factor contributing to employee turnover in Ranbaxy Laboratories Limited. Do exit interviews affect employee turnover in Ranbaxy Laboratories Limited. Does competiveness of reward program as a factor contributing to employee turnover in Ranbaxy Laboratories Limited. Do the work place environment affect employee turnover in Ranbaxy Laboratories Limited. Scope of the Study In the literature, the variables that influence the turnover of the employees in an organization is vast. Since human resource management is also a socially complex process which is intertwined with array of organizational factors, it further diversifies the reasons as to why employees leave their organizations. Thus, this study focused only on retention action employed by the organization, exit interviews, competitiveness of reward program and status of workplace environment as factors influencing the employee turnover investigated. The study will limit itself to the case of Ranbaxy Laboratories Limited only. Literature Review Both the theoretical and empirical reviews on employee turnover and its variables were conducted. This resulted into array of constructs (retention strategy, exit interviews, reward strategy, workplace environment and employee turnover) and their relationships which was conceptualized in the following schematic diagram below. This was used as the Conceptual framework which guided the study. Retention Strategy Exit Interviews Employee Turnover Reward Strategy Work place Environment Independent Variables Dependant Variable Research Methodology This chapter focused on research design, sampling, instrumentation, data collection, data analysis and interpretation. Research Design The research adopted descriptive approach. This is because, the study aim to describe employee turnover phenomena using different set of independent variable cluster. Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the phenomena to describe what exists, with respect to variables or conditions in a situation (Mugenda and Mugenda, 1999). Population and Sampling The study focused on pharmaceutical industry in Kenya which is the target population regarded as the larger population on which the findings were generalized to. The study population was mployees of Ranbaxy Laboratories Limited. A target population is the total collection of elements about which one wishes to make some inferences (Mugenda and Mugenda, 1999). Stratified random sampling was used to select a sample size of 50 employees out of the total 75 employee of the study population. Since most variables under investigations are related to motivation, stratification is necessary to consider the different cadres of employees which pose motivation implications. This is equivalent to 66.67% sample size. According to Dempsey, (2003) a sample size of 50% is appropriate for generalization of the gathered findings in descriptive research. This therefore surpasses the threshold suggested by Dempsey, (2003) for generalization purposes and thus, regarded as adequate. The list sourced from th e Human Resource department of Ranbaxy Laboratories Limited was used as a sampling frame. Data Collection and Instrumentation Primary data collection was through the questionnaire using a semi structured questionnaire that was interviewer-administered. Secondary data was through review of the theoretical and empirical literatures sourced from books and scholarly journals, Internet and conference papers among others. Pilot Test A pilot study was conducted to test reliability of the instrument (questionnaire). This involved selecting 2 respondents from each strata and issuing them with the questionnaires. Data was obtained using the questionnaires and after evaluating and identifying the response, reliability analysis using Kunder-Richardson 20 formulae was conducted. The results were applied to modify or drop the items whose thresholds were low. Data reliability also plays an important role towards generalization of the gathered data to reflect the research objective. Data Analysis and Presentation Descriptive statistics data analysis method was applied to analyze quantitative data where data was scored by calculating the percentages and means. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) computer software was used specifically for the purpose of analyzing the quantitative data and presenting it inform of table, figures and graphs. Linear Regression analysis was also used to show the relationship between research variables. Qualitative data analysis method was employed to analyze qualitative data gathered using open end questions. Summary of the Major Findings Response Rate The response rate was 80%. This is regarded adequate in line with the literature by Mugenda and Mugenda, (2003) which recommends 70% as a good response rate in descriptive studies. Respondents Demographic Profile Majority of the respondents (50%) were within the age bracket 31-40 years, 24% within the age bracket of 18-30, and 13% within the age bracket of 41-50 years and 51 years and above. On the education level, majority of the respondents (62%) had attained university education level and 25% had attained college education level. Regarding working experience most of the respondents (35%) had a working experience of 3-5 years, 25% 6-7 years, 18% 3-5 years, 20% had a working experience of less than 2years and 20% had a working experience of 8 years and above. This indicated that most of the study respondents were experienced and educated and hence expected to give relevant information for this study. Employee Retention Strategies Majority (58%) of the respondents indicated the organization lacked effective employee retention strategies while 42% felt otherwise. The 58% felt management lacked understanding on retention strategies. This concurs with Ruth (2004) that managers who have greater understanding on causes of employee turnover are likely to employ effective employee retention strategies in order to retain competent and most skilled employee. Further 80% of the respondents felt that the strategies employed do not minimize employee turnover. Using Likert scale method rating 4 very effective,3-effective,2-Moderate and 1 not effective 5-very effective, (50%) rated the effectiveness of the employed employee retention strategies as being moderate, 18% effective, 20% not effective and 12% very effective. From this we can infer majority of the employee rated average. This concurs with findings by Baker (2004) that organization that lacks very effectives employee retention strategies faces cases of high employ ee turnover rates that contributes to loss of the most skilled and competent employee. The low standard deviation indicates that there was negligible error during the analysis and the variance results demonstrates that respondents gave similar answers as the answers variation was close to each other and hence giving a clear indication that the answers given were reliable From the findings, it can be concluded that lack of effective employee retention strategies contributed to high employee turnover rates in the organization. Exit Interviews Majority of the respondents (68%) were of the opinion that employees leaving the organization were not subjected to exit interviews. However, 32% of the respondents expressed that the employees were subjected to exit interviews. This agreed with suggestion by Armstrong (2006) that presence of exit interviews in organization assists human resource management to establish the core causes of high employee turnover. Concerning whether exit interviews help the organization to find out the reasons for employee turnover (83%) answered no indicating that exit interviews did not help to establish reasons why employees left the organization and (37%) felt otherwise. The majority who answered no explained that the organization lacked effective exit interview program that helped in capturing the organization problems influencing high employee turnover. Regarding the frequency of conducting exit interviews respondents (47.5%) stated that exit interviews were rarely conducted, 40% stated sometimes , 7.5% never and only 5% who stated exit interviews were always conducted. Exit interviews were rarely conducted since the management was not conscious on the reasons contributing to high employee turnover rates and this agreed with Nelly (2002) that human resource managers who are not mindful about employees turnover do not carry out exit interviews and instead concentrates on employing new employees. The study hence concluded that conducting exit interviews could help human resource management in pharmaceutical to effectively manage high employee turnover rates. The table shows that a low standard deviation was obtained in all questions, indicating that the answers given were accurate. A low variance in all the questions shows that the respondents answered the questions in a similar way and hence the responses given were reliable. Reward Program The study sought to find out competitiveness of the reward program.73% of the respondents felt the reward program was not competitive and it was one of the reasons that influenced employees to leave. This agrees with Nzuve (2007) that absence of competitive rewards in the organization lead to low level of employee motivation that influences most employee to leave the organization hence increasing the rate of employee turnover.85% of the respondents indicated absence of competitive reward programs in the organization contributed to high employee turnover while 15% felt otherwise. As can be observed from the table a mean of 1.27 and 1.85 was obtained in the two questions indicating that organization lacked competitive reward programs and absence of competitive reward programs contributed high employee turnover rates. Work place Environment An overwhelming (80%) of the respondents felt their work environment was not conducive while 20% felt it was conducive. The majority 80% felt that the work environment contributed to employee turnover. Using Likert Scale where 5 -very large externt4-large extent, 3-moderate extent, 2-small extent and 1- not at all, majority of the respondents (60%) stated that work place environment contributed to employee turnover to a very large extent, 20% large extent, 10% moderate extent and 5% small extent and not at all respectively. A mean of 1.20 indicates that organization work place environment was not conducive, a mean of 1.80 shows that work place environment contributed to high employee turnover rate and a mean of 4.25 indicated that work place environment contributed to employee turnover to a large extent. A low variance and a low standard deviation demonstrate that the answers given by the respondents were accurate. Regression Analysis A regression equation to show the relationship between the independent variables and dependant variable was derived Y = a + bX1 + bX2 + bX3 + bX4 + e=r2 The values for b0, b1, b2, b3 and b4 are  .569, .330, .095, .160 and .132 therefore the equation Y = .569+.330+.095+ .160 +.132 This indicates that there is a strong relationship between, employee retention, exit interviews, reward program, work place environment and employee turnover. A coefficient of .330 indicates that application of effective employee retention strategies reduces employee turnover by 0.330,a coefficient of .095 indicates application of exit interviews reduces employee turnover by 0.095. A coefficient of.160 presents that application of effective reward programs reduces employee turnover by 0.16. A coefficient of .132 indicates that conducive workplace environment helps to reduce employee turnover by 0.132. Conclusion Based on the findings of the study, it can be concluded that employee retention strategy was a major factor that greatly contributed to high employee turnover rates in the organization. The study also found out that one of the critical parameter of collecting data form the exiting employees, exit interviews were not regularly conducted whenever employees left the organization. And this hampered the organization human resource management to identify the core reasons that influenced employees to leave the organization. Lack of competitive reward program greatly contributed to high employee turnover rates in the organization since the organizations reward package was not competitive and also lacks the elements of totality in its reward system. Finally it can be concluded that the organization working environment was not conducive to most of the employees and this contributed to high employee turnover. This is expected since; laboratories like workshops are characteristically identified with the workplace environments which they offer. Recommendations Employee turnover should not be left to be handled by the human resource department alone rather it should be looked at as part of the overall business strategy since human capital is one of the major factors of production. This way , factors that are causing employee turnover will be handled and top management level and action will be taken to minimize employee turnover. Thus the study suggests the need to investigate on the role played by the top management in the alleviating employee turnover investigation as necessary. The study also recommends the need for the managements to be vigilant with their exit interviews so as to get insights of why the employees are leaving while redoubling their efforts in streamlining the motivation package.

Christmas History :: essays research papers

Christmas History The word Christmas comes from the old English "Cristes maesse" meaning Christ's Mass. The Holiday celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ. The actual birthday of Jesus is not known; therefore, the early Church Fathers in the 4th century fixed the day around the old Roman Saturnalia festival (17 - 21 December), a traditional pagan festivity. The first mention of the birthday of Jesus is from the year 354 AD. Gradually all Christian churches, except Armenians who celebrate Christmas on January 6 (the date of the baptism of Jesus as well as the day of the three Magi), accepted the date of December 25th. In American/English tradition, Christmas Day itself is the day for opening gifts brought by jolly old St. Nick. Many of our current American ideals about the way Christmas ought to be, derive from the English Victorian Christmas, such as that described in Charles Dickens' "A Christmas Carol." The caroling, the gifts, the feast, and the wishing of good cheer to all - these ingredients came together to create that special Christmas atmosphere. The custom of gift-giving on Christmas goes back to Roman festivals of Saturnalia and Kalends. The very first gifts were simple items such as twigs from a sacred grove as good luck emblems. Soon that escalated to food, small items of jewelry, candles, and statues of gods. To the early Church, gift- giving at this time was a pagan holdover and therefore severely frowned upon. However, people would not part with it, and some justification was found in the original gift giving of the Magi, and from figures such as St. Nicholas. By the middle ages gift giving was accepted. Before then it was more common to exchange gifts on New Year's Day or Twelfth Night. Santa Claus is known by British children as Father Christmas. Father Christmas, these days, is quite similar to the American Santa, but his direct ancestor is a certain pagan spirit who regularly appeared in medieval mummer's plays. The old-fashioned Father Christmas was depicted wearing long robes with sprigs of holly in his long white hair. Children write letters to Father Christmas detailing their requests, but instead of dropping them in the mailbox, the letters are tossed into the fireplace. The draft carries the letters up the chimney, and theoretically, Father Christmas reads the smoke. Gifts are opened Christmas afternoon. From the English we get a story to explain the custom of hanging stockings from the mantelpiece. Father Christmas once dropped some gold coins while coming down the chimney. The coins would have fallen through the ash grate and been